India’s external relations notes
Class 12 Political Science Chapter 4 notes
Here, we are providing notes for Chapter 4 of Class 12 Political Science: “India’s External Relations“. This chapter examines the key features associated with India’s foreign relations.
These notes will prove beneficial for students preparing for their board examinations this year. Crafted in simple and systematic language, this material will aid in quickly revising the chapter and retaining the key points.
India’s external relations notes, Class 12 Political Science Chapter 4 notes
class 12 Political Science book 2 chapter 4 notes
foreign policy
Every country employs a specific type of policy in establishing relations with other countries, which is known as foreign policy.
Features / Principles of Pandit Nehru's Foreign Policy:
1. Non-alignment :-
The most significant feature of India’s foreign policy is Non-Alignment. Non-Alignment means not joining any bloc and pursuing an independent policy. The Government of India has always adhered to the policy of Non-Alignment.
2. Policy of World Peace and Security:
The fundamental principle of India’s foreign policy is the maintenance of global peace and security. India advocates for the peaceful resolution of international disputes. India has consistently pursued a policy aimed at establishing global peace and ensuring security.
3. Opposition to Imperialists and Colonies:
India itself has been a victim of the British Empire; consequently, it has consistently opposed imperialism and colonialism. India regards imperialism as an enemy of world peace, as imperialism gives rise to war.
4. Friendly Relations with Other Countries:
A key feature of Indian foreign policy is that India strives to establish friendly relations with all countries of the world.
5. Panchsheel:
Another significant component of India’s foreign policy is Panchsheel, which constitutes a major contribution to international politics. This doctrine gained immense popularity in 1954, when a treaty was concluded between India and China regarding the issue of Tibet. Five principles were formulated to foster friendly relations between states; these are collectively known as Panchsheel.
6. Regional Cooperation:-
India has always believed in regional cooperation. To foster the spirit of regional cooperation, India played a significant role in the establishment of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) in 1985. It is referred to in short as ‘SAARC’.
Non-Aligned Movement
- Non-alignment implies that a country refrains from joining blocs formed by other nations, maintaining a distance from them, and avoids making thoughtless comments—whether in praise or condemnation—regarding the actions undertaken by these blocs.
- The first Non-Aligned Movement summit was held in Belgrade in 1961.
- Regarding non-alignment, Pandit Nehru stated: “As far as possible, we wish to remain aloof from those power blocs.”
- “Which have been the cause of world wars in the past and could potentially lead to them in the future.”
- Currently, this movement comprises 120 member nations from the Third World.
- The 17th summit of the Non-Aligned Movement was held in Venezuela in September 2016.
- The 18th summit is scheduled to take place in Azerbaijan in June 2019.
Founding Countries of the Non-Aligned Movement:-
- Josip Broz Tito – Yugoslavia
- Jawaharlal Nehru – India
- Gamal Abdel Nasser – Egypt
- Dr. Sukarno – Indonesia
- Kwame Nkrumah – Ghana
Objectives of Non-Alignment:
- Maintaining distance from other blocs.
- Member states of the Non-Aligned Movement shall extend economic cooperation to one another.
- An attack on one country shall be deemed an attack on all countries, and all nations shall collectively resist it.
- Mutual disputes among member states of the Non-Aligned Movement shall be resolved through dialogue.
- Non-alignment emphasizes the establishment of friendly relations with all states.
- Non-alignment opposes imperialism.
- Refraining from making unconsidered comments—whether in praise or condemnation—regarding actions undertaken by any bloc.
Main Reasons for India's Adoption of a Nuclear Policy:
- During its early years, India’s nuclear policy and its approach toward nuclear weapons remained largely idealistic and liberal.
- Throughout the Cold War era, India placed significant emphasis on the growth of the Non-Aligned Movement and consistently advocated for disarmament.
- However, the defeat in the war against China in 1962, China’s nuclear test in 1964, and the two wars fought against Pakistan in 1965 and 1971 profoundly influenced India’s nuclear policy and its approach to the development of nuclear weapons.
- It was in the 1970s that India first realized the imperative of becoming a nuclear-armed nation itself.
- By conducting its first nuclear test in 1974—followed by five more in 1998—India demonstrated to the world that it, too, is a nuclear-capable nation.
The following arguments can be put forward in favor of India's nuclear policy, as well as the development and possession of nuclear weapons:
- For self-defense
- Prohibition on first use
- Becoming a self-reliant nation
- Becoming a powerful nation
- Attaining prestige
- Wars fought by India
- Two neighboring countries possessing nuclear weapons
- Achieving a posture of minimum deterrence
Wars Fought Between India and Pakistan:
1. The Kashmir Issue, 1947 :-
- A conflict over the Kashmir issue erupted with Pakistan immediately following the Partition. In 1947 itself, a war broke out between the armies of India and Pakistan in Kashmir.
- India emerged victorious in this war.
2. The India–Pakistan War of 1965 (Causes):
A. The Integration of Junagadh and Hyderabad into India:-
Pakistan suffered a severe blow following the integration of the princely states of Junagadh and Hyderabad into India, and consequently began engaging in actions aimed at constantly undermining India.
B. The Question of Repaying the Loan:-
Independent India assumed the burden of the former government’s debts. Under this arrangement, it was due to receive 300 crore rupees from Pakistan over a period of five years; however, Pakistan did not even make a move to repay the debt.
C. The Question of Protecting Displaced Property and Minorities:-
Between 1947 and 1957, approximately 9 million Muslims migrated from India to Pakistan, and an equal number of non-Muslims moved from Pakistan to India. Pakistan rejected all proposals regarding the property of these displaced persons and the protection of minorities.
D. The Kashmir Problem :-
The primary cause of the war between India and Pakistan in 1965 was the Kashmir issue. In October 1947, Maharaja Hari Singh of Kashmir had announced the accession of the princely state of Kashmir to India; however, Pakistan never accepted this.
3. The War of 1971
- In 1971, the people of East Pakistan launched a movement for independence against the dictatorship of Yahya Khan. Yahya Khan employed military force to crush the movement.
- India extended its support to the liberation struggle of Bangladesh. Approximately ten million refugees were compelled to seek refuge in India. This placed a massive burden on India’s economy.
- India appealed to the nations of the world to withhold any form of economic assistance to Pakistan until the crisis regarding the Bangladesh issue was resolved.
- The Soviet Union and numerous other countries expressed their solidarity with India. However, major powers such as China and the United States continued to provide economic and military aid to Pakistan, characterizing the Bangladesh issue as an internal affair of Pakistan.
- On December 3, 1971, Pakistan launched an attack on India. India valiantly countered this aggression and emerged victorious, with approximately 90,000 Pakistani soldiers surrendering to the Indian forces.
4. Kargil War 1999
- The Kargil War, also known as Operation Vijay,
- is the name of the armed conflict that took place between India and Pakistan in the Kargil district of Kashmir between May and July 1999.
- The Pakistani Army and Kashmiri militants crossed the Line of Control—the boundary between India and Pakistan—and attempted to occupy Indian territory.
- In this 60-day-long war, India completely routed the Pakistani Army.
Calmness :-
In 1999, the Lahore Agreement was signed between the two countries to maintain stability and peace. The Prime Minister of India, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, and the Prime Minister of Pakistan, Nawaz Sharif, signed it.
Tashkent Agreement
- The Tashkent Agreement was concluded between India and Pakistan in 1966 in Tashkent, the capital of Uzbekistan.
- The main provisions of this agreement are as follows:
- Both parties shall endeavor to foster cordial relations in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations.
- Both parties agreed that their respective armed forces would withdraw to the positions they held prior to August 5, 1965, by February 5, 1966.
- Neither country shall interfere in the internal affairs of the other.
- Neither country shall engage in propaganda against the other.
Shimla Agreement
- In June 1972, a conference was held in which Mrs. Indira Gandhi and Pakistan’s then-ruler, Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, participated.
- At the conference, the two countries reached an agreement known as the Simla Agreement.
The key terms of this agreement are as follows:
- Both nations are firmly resolved to resolve their mutual disputes through bilateral negotiations and recognized peaceful means.
- Both nations shall respect each other’s national unity, territorial integrity, political independence, and sovereign equality.
- Neither country shall engage in mutually hostile propaganda.
- Both countries shall strive to establish normal mutual relations.
Afro-Asian Unity
- At the time of India’s independence, several other countries across the world also gained freedom—nations that, much like India, were poor and had long remained so.
- Against this backdrop, Nehru endeavored to foster unity between Africa and Asia.
- In 1947, under Nehru’s leadership, India hosted the Asian Relations Conference.
- In 1949, India convened an international conference in support of Indonesia’s independence.
- India opposed colonialism.
- India specifically opposed apartheid, particularly in South Africa.
- The Afro-Asian Conference was held in 1955 in the Indonesian city of Bandung,
- laying the foundation for the Non-Aligned Movement.
China–India Relations
Panchsheel principle:-
- The principles of Panchsheel were formulated in April 1954 by the Prime Ministers of India and China—Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and Zhou Enlai.
- Five principles were set forth in the preamble to this trade agreement, which are collectively known as Panchsheel. India and China adopted these five principles to govern their mutual relations.
These are the principles:
- Respect mutual territorial integrity and sovereignty
- not to attack each other
- non-interference in internal affairs
- equality and mutual benefit
- peaceful coexistence
The War Between India and China in 1962
- China launched an invasion across India’s northern border on October 20, 1962.
- Due to this sudden attack, by the time Indian forces could regroup, China had already seized control of military outposts.
- At India’s request, Britain and the United States swiftly dispatched military supplies.
- On November 21, 1962, China abruptly declared a unilateral ceasefire.
- India’s defeat at the hands of China—and particularly the setback to Nehru’s image—inflicted significant damage to the country’s standing on the international stage.
The Problem of Tibet:
- The issue of Tibet was one of the causes of the war between India and China.
- In 1914, a conference was held in Simla to demarcate the border between these two countries, which came to be known as the Simla Accord.
यह निर्णय हुआ :-
- China would retain suzerainty over Tibet, but Outer Tibet would enjoy complete autonomy in its internal administration.
- China would not interfere in Tibet’s internal affairs.
- China would never declare Tibet a province of its state.
- Relations between the governments of Tibet and India were excellent; the Indian government maintained eleven rest houses in Tibet.
- On October 7, 1950, China dispatched its troops into Tibet.
- The Chinese constructed a road across the Aksai Chin plateau and established several military outposts in Ladakh.
- On March 31, 1957, fearing repression by the Chinese, the Dalai Lama sought political asylum in India. China lodged a protest against this.
- In 1959, China accused India of providing sanctuary to armed rebels in Tibet.
Map-related Issues:
- One of the causes of the 1962 war between India and China was the territory delineated on maps by the two countries.
- In a map published in 1954, China depicted certain areas that were, in reality, part of Indian territory.
- When questions regarding this issue were raised with China, it stated that this was an old map and that the error would be rectified in the new map.
Border Dispute:
- One of the causes of the dispute between India and China was the border dispute. India consistently accepted the McMahon Line, whereas China did not.
- The border dispute gradually escalated to such an extent that it eventually took the form of a war.
India–Israel Relations
- Relations between India and Israel began in 1992.
- It is India’s second-largest arms supplier, after Russia.
- There is also cooperation between the two countries in the agricultural sector.
- Israel has assisted India in adopting modern irrigation techniques and enhancing agricultural productivity.
- To promote water conservation, Israel has established water purification plants in various regions across India.
- Even amidst the ongoing coronavirus pandemic, India has exported various medicines to Israel.
India-Russia Relations
- Relations between India and Russia have always been cordial.
- India purchases arms from Russia, and Russia has consistently extended its support to India.
- Both India and Russia share a vision of a multipolar world.
- Both nations desire that international conflicts be resolved through dialogue.
- The India-Russia Agreement of 2001 led to the signing of several bilateral agreements between the two countries.
- India is an oil-importing nation, and during times of crisis, Russia has assisted India by supplying oil.
- Russia has provided assistance to India in its nuclear program as well as its space industry.
- India, in turn, assists Russia in scientific endeavors.
- Russia supports India on the Kashmir issue.
Good Relations between India and Bhutan
- India shares excellent relations with Bhutan.
- Bhutan expelled militants and guerrillas from Northeast India from its territory, providing significant assistance to India.
- India is collaborating on massive hydroelectric projects in Bhutan.
- India provides the largest amount of development aid to Bhutan.
- There are no major conflicts between the Indian and Bhutanese governments.
Good Relations Between India and the Maldives
- In 1988, a group of hired Tamil mercenaries from Sri Lanka invaded the Maldives.
- When the Maldives sought India’s assistance to repel the attack, the Indian Air Force and Navy took swift action.
- India has also assisted the Maldives in its economic development, as well as in its tourism and fisheries industries.
India-Bangladesh Relations
Two Issues of Cooperation
- Bangladesh signed an agreement on the Farakka Ganga water-sharing issue in December 1996.
- India and Bangladesh have always stood united on the issue of terrorism.
Two Issues of Non-Cooperation
- The issue of non-cooperation between India and Bangladesh is the Chakma refugees.
- Anti-India activities take place periodically in Bangladesh.
- Bangladesh’s support for anti-India Muslim groups.
- The sharing of the waters of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers.
Good Relations Between India and Nepal
- Relations between India and Nepal have been cordial.
- A treaty exists between India and Nepal that allows citizens of both countries to travel to and from one another’s territory without a visa or passport.
- India consistently extends its cooperation to Nepal in every sphere.
- India’s cooperation in the fields of science and trade.
Strained Relations Between India and Nepal:-
- The Government of Nepal does not take action against anti-India activities.
- Nepal’s close friendship with China has created a rift in India-Nepal relations.
- India views the growing number of Maoist supporters in Nepal as a threat to itself.
- Nepal feels that India interferes in its internal affairs.
Good Relations Between India and Sri Lanka
- The existence of agreements such as the FTA (Free Trade Agreement) between India and Sri Lanka.
- While there have been instances of discord between India and Sri Lanka, treaties of friendship have also been established.
- Providing economic assistance to Sri Lanka (during the time of the Tsunami).
Strained Relations Between India and Sri Lanka:-
- The Sinhalese perceive that India supports the Tamils.
- The deployment of a peacekeeping force by India in 1987 led to discord between the two sides.
- Interference in internal affairs is also, to some extent, a cause of the strained relations.
India-US Relations
- Due to India’s close ties with the Soviet Union, relations between the United States and India were strained from the very beginning.
- Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, relations between India and the United States improved, and currently, their ties are quite strong.
Characteristics of India-US Relations:
- Currently, the India-US bilateral partnership addresses various subjects, including the fight against COVID-19, the climate crisis and sustainable development, education, and security.
- 35 percent of the employees at the American company Boeing are Indian.
- More than 300,000 Indians are employed in Silicon Valley.
- Indians make a significant contribution to American companies.
ncert Class 12 Political Science book 2 Chapter 4 Notes
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