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Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings notes
Class 12 History Chapter 4 Notes

Here, we are providing notes for Chapter 4 of Class 12 History: “Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings.” This chapter explores the key characteristics associated with the era of “Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings.”

These notes will prove beneficial for students preparing for their board examinations this year. Crafted in simple and organized language, this material will aid in quickly revising the chapter and retaining key points.

Thinkers Beliefs and Buildings notes, Class 12 History Chapter 4 Notes

कक्षा 12 इतिहास अध्याय 4 के नोट्स हिंदी में, विचारक विश्वास और इमारतें notes

class 12 History chapter 4 notes

What are stupas?

Stupas are a significant part of ancient Indian architecture. Simply put, a stupa is a dome-shaped structure constructed in memory of a great individual—particularly the Buddha, a Jain Tirthankara, or a saint—or to preserve their mortal remains.

Key Features:

  1. Spherical or hemispherical shape (dome)
  2. Inside it, a casket containing metal objects or relics (bones) was placed.
  3. A circumambulation path (Pradakshina) encircled the Stupa.
  4. At the very top stood a *Chhatra* (umbrella-like finial), symbolizing honor and protection.
  5. *Toranas* (gateways) were constructed in all four cardinal directions around the Stupa, featuring exquisite carvings.
  6. Birth of the Buddha – Lumbini
  7. Attainment of Enlightenment – ​​Bodh Gaya
  8. Delivered the First Sermon – Sarnath
  9. Attained *Nibbana* (Nirvana) – Kushinagar

Importance :

  1. Stupas played a significant role in the propagation and spread of Buddhism.
  2. These were not merely religious sites, but also serve as magnificent examples of art, craftsmanship, and architecture.
  3. Famous examples include: the Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh), the Bharhut Stupa, the Amaravati Stupa, and the Toranas (gateways) of Sanchi.

Why were stupas built?

1. In memory of the Buddha and Great Personalities:

Stupas were primarily constructed in memory of Gautama Buddha, Jain Tirthankaras, or revered saints. Relics of their bodies—such as bones, teeth, clothing, or personal belongings—or sacred symbols were enshrined within the stupas, so that people could pay them homage.

2. For Worship and Circumambulation:

Circumambulating the stupa was considered a religious act. People would visit the site to worship the stupa, meditate, and attain mental peace.

3. For the propagation and spread of Buddhism:

During the time of Ashoka, stupas were constructed throughout India and Asia.

4. Symbols of Art and Architecture:-

The carvings, sculptures, and pictorial narratives created upon them were beautiful examples of local art.

5. Center of an Organized Society and Community:-

Education, discussions, religious discourses, and cultural activities took place.

How were stupas built?

  1. Securing the sacred relics
  2. Constructing a hemispherical dome (Anda) using earth, stone, and brick
  3. Preparing the platform (Medhi) and the circumambulatory path (Pradakshina Path)
  4. The Harmika and Chhatra atop the pinnacle
  5. Toranas and Vedikas surrounding the enclosure

Who were the people who contributed to the construction of stupas?

  1. Kings and Rulers – The most significant economic and political support was provided by kings or emperors. Example: Emperor Ashoka commissioned the construction of 84,000 stupas to propagate Buddhism.
  2. Merchants and Wealthy Donors – Many affluent merchants, moneylenders, and guilds (*shrenis*) provided financial assistance for the construction of stupas. The funds donated by them were utilized to create carvings, gateways (*toranas*), and sculptures.
  3. Buddhist Monks (The Sangha) – The Buddhist Sangha (monastic community) formulated plans, arranged for the relics, and conducted religious rituals.
  4. Artisans, Artists, and Architectural Experts – Sculptors, painters, architects, and laborers—all worked together to create the aesthetic beauty of the stupa.
  5. The General Public – Ordinary people contributed small donations, such as voluntary labor (*shramdan*).

Structure of the Stupa

  1. In Sanskrit, a stupa is referred to as a mound.
  2. It originated as a hemispherical earthen mound, which eventually came to be known as the *Anda*.
  3. Over time, its structure became more complex, incorporating a balance between square and circular forms.
  4. Surmounting the *Anda* was a *Harmika*—a balcony-like structure that served as a symbolic representation of the abode of the gods.
  5. Encircling the mound was a *Vedika* (railing), which served to demarcate the sacred space from the mundane world.

How were stupas discovered?

  1. In 1796, a local Raja (who wished to construct a temple) stumbled upon the remains of the Amravati Stupa.
  2. He decided to utilize its stones for his project. He harbored the belief that a treasure might be hidden within this small hillock.
  3. A few years later, a British officer named Colin Mackenzie passed through this region.
  4. Although he discovered numerous sculptures and produced detailed illustrations of them, his report was never published.
  5. In 1854, the Commissioner of Guntur (Andhra Pradesh), during a visit to Amravati, collected a number of sculptures and stones and transported them to Madras.
  6. During the 1850s, the carved stones of Amravati were being dispersed to various locations; for instance, some reached the Asiatic Society of Bengal in Calcutta, while others were sent to Madras and London.
  7. When attempts were made to stop them, they would retort: ​​”If the people before us were not stopped, why are we being stopped now?”

What was the contribution of the rulers of Bhopal in preserving the Stupa at Sanchi?

1. Early 19th Century (British Period):-

When British officials and explorers arrived in India, they found the Stupa at Sanchi in a state of ruin. From there, numerous sculptures and carvings from the gateways began to be stolen and eventually found their way into foreign museums.

2. Awakening in the Bhopal Princely State

At that time, the ruler of the princely state of Bhopal was Shah Jahan Begum, followed later by her daughter, Sultan Jahan Begum. Working in collaboration with British officials, they expressed their concern that Sanchi’s historical heritage must be preserved.

The rulers of Bhopal should take significant steps.

  1. Granted permission to British archaeologists (such as Sir John Marshall) to undertake conservation work.
  2. Implemented measures at the local level to curb thieves and looters.
  3. Secured legal protection for the stupa and the surrounding land to prevent any private encroachment or damage.

3. Collaboration with the Department of Archaeology (ASI):-

  1. The Bhopal State extended its cooperation to the Archaeological Survey of India so that:
  2. Damaged structures could be repaired.
  3. The original structure could be restored through excavation and exploration.
  4. The site could be preserved for tourists.

conclusion:-

  1. Had the State of Bhopal—and particularly its enlightened Begums—not taken timely action, the Sanchi Stupa might today exist only in history books, rather than in reality.
  2. Sultan Jahan provided grants for the construction of a museum and a guesthouse at the site. While residing there, John Marshall authored significant works.

Why is the first millennium BCE considered a significant turning point in world history?

  1. The Rise of Major Civilizations and Empires: During this period, great civilizations and empires—such as those of Persia, Greece, Rome, and the Mauryas—emerged.
  2. The Dawn of Major Religious and Philosophical Movements: In India, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism gained strength; similarly, in China, Confucianism and Taoism emerged.
  3. Development of Writing Systems and Literature: (Great texts and literary works were created in languages such as Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, and Chinese.)
  4. Expansion of Trade and Connectivity: Both maritime and overland trade routes expanded.
  5. An exchange of cultures, goods, and ideas began to take place across vast distances; within large empires, organized armies, taxation systems, roads, and fortifications were established. War technology (specifically, the use of iron) also saw significant improvement.

The Tradition of Yajnas

1. In the ancient Vedic period, people [worshipped] natural forces:

They regarded (the Sun, Fire, Wind, Indra, and Varuna) as deities. They believed that these deities could be appeased by performing yajnas(sacrifices), thereby securing rain, good harvests, protection, and prosperity.

2. For Collective Unity and Social Organization:

In this, the King, the priests, the subjects, and the merchants—everyone gathered together to participate, thereby strengthening social unity.

2. For Charity and Earning Merit:

People believed that this would earn them merit and lead to the attainment of heaven in the next life or after death.

3. Due to religious and spiritual beliefs:

  1. It was believed that performing a Yajna destroys sins, purifies the soul, and maintains cosmic balance.
  2. The Yajnas performed by great kings—such as the Rajasuya, Ashwamedha, and Vajapeya—served as a demonstration of their strength, authority, and prosperity. This enhanced the king’s recognition and prestige.

Debates and Discussions

  1. Buddhist texts offer a glimpse into lively discussions and debates. The role of a teacher involved wandering from place to place to engage in arguments—both with fellow scholars and with the general public—regarding their respective understandings of the world.
  2. These discussions took place in *Kutagarshalas* (huts with pointed roofs) or in groves where wandering ascetics would stay.
  3. If a teacher succeeded in convincing a rival through their arguments, the latter—along with their own followers—would become disciples; consequently, support for any given sect tended to grow only gradually over time.

Mahatma Buddha: Biography

Birth : -

  1. Real Name: Siddhartha Gautama
  2. Birth: Circa 563 BCE, Lumbini (present-day Nepal)
  3. Father: Shuddhodana (King of the Shakya Republic)
  4. Mother: Mahamaya Devi

Royal Life:

  1. From childhood, he was raised in luxury as a prince.
  2. Marriage: To Yashodhara; one son: Rahul.
  3. However, he remained constantly restless regarding the sorrows and questions of life.

The Great Renunciation

  1. At the age of 29, leaving behind his home, family, palace, and kingdom,
  2. he set out in search of the Truth.
  3. The Reason: He witnessed an elderly person, a sick person, a deceased person, and an ascetic, and realized that suffering is an inevitable part of life.

Four Events That Influenced Mahatma Buddha:

  1. An elderly person
  2. A sick person
  3. A dead person
  4. An ascetic

Attainment of Knowledge (Bodhi):-

  1. He engaged in spiritual practice, asceticism, and meditation for many years.
  2. Ultimately, at the age of 35, he attained enlightenment under a Peepal tree in Bodh Gaya (Bihar).
  3. It was then that he came to be known as the Buddha (the Enlightened One), rather than Siddhartha.

Propagation of the Dharma:

  • He delivered his first sermon at Sarnath (near Varanasi)—an event known as the *Dharmachakra Pravartana* (Turning of the Wheel of Dharma).
  • He preached the messages of non-violence, compassion, the Middle Path, and the Eightfold Path.
  • His community of disciples (the Sangha) expanded, and his teachings reached everyone—from kings to the common people.

Mahaparinirvana :-

He attained Mahaparinirvana (death) in Kushinagar (Uttar Pradesh) at the age of approximately 80.

Key Messages:

  1. Life is full of suffering; the cause of suffering is *Trishna* (desire).
  2. The cessation of suffering is possible, and the path to it is the Eightfold Path.
  3. Emphasis on *Ahimsa* (non-violence), *Karuna* (compassion), *Sheel* (ethical conduct), and *Samadhi* (meditation).

The Major Teachings of Mahatma Buddha

1. The Four Noble Truths

  1. Suffering: There is suffering in life.
  2. The Cause of Suffering: Craving (desire, greed).
  3. The Cessation of Suffering: Suffering can be eliminated.
  4. The Path to the Cessation of Suffering: One must follow the Eightfold Path.

2. The Eightfold Path

  1. Right View
  2. Right Intention
  3. Right Speech
  4. Right Action
  5. Right Livelihood
  6. Right Effort
  7. Right Mindfulness
  8. Right Concentration

3. Five Precepts

  1. Do not commit violence
  2. Do not steal
  3. Do not speak untruths
  4. Do not commit adultery
  5. Do not consume intoxicants

4. Middle Path

  1. Neither excessive indulgence,
  2. Nor excessive asceticism—
  3. Balance in life.

5. Compassion and Non-violence

  1. To harbor compassion and kindness towards all living beings.
  2. To renounce violence, malice, and envy.

According to the Buddhist tradition, the final instruction he gave to his disciples was as follows: “All of you, be a light unto yourselves, for you must find the path to your own liberation on your own.”

Followers of the Buddha

  1. Inspired by the teachings of Mahatma Buddha, his followers established the Sangha.
  2. The lives of those residing in this Sangha were characterized by simplicity.
  3. They possessed nothing beyond the bare essentials required for their sustenance.
  4. For instance, they carried a bowl to receive food donations from lay devotees once a day. Since they were dependent on alms, they came to be known as *Bhikkhus* (monks).
  5. Initially, only men were permitted to join the Sangha.
  6. Later, the disciple Ananda persuaded Buddha and secured permission for women to join the Sangha as well.
  7. Buddha’s foster mother, Mahaprajapati Gotami, became the first woman to join the Sangha as a *Bhikkhuni* (nun).
  8. Women who attained Nirvana were referred to as *Theris*.
  9. Buddha’s followers hailed from all social strata; this included kings, the wealthy, householders, as well as common people—laborers, slaves, and artisans alike.
  10. Once admitted to the Sangha, everyone was treated as an equal, and they were required to relinquish their former identities.
  11. Buddhism spread not only during Buddha’s lifetime but continued to expand extensively even after his passing, as Buddhist teachings placed great emphasis on virtuous conduct and moral values.

Mahavir Swami: A Brief Introduction

Birth : -

  1. Full Name: Vardhaman Mahavir
  2. Birth: 599 BC, Kundalpur (present Bihar)
  3. Father: Siddhartha (Kshatriya king, Gyantrika clan)
  4. Mother: Trishala Devi

The Beginning of Life

  1. He lived a life of luxury as a prince.
  2. At the age of 30, he renounced his home and family to embark on a quest for spiritual practice and truth.

The Propagation of Jainism

  1. After 12 years of rigorous asceticism, he attained Kaivalya Jnana (absolute knowledge).
  2. He became the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism.
  3. He taught these five Mahavratas (Great Vows): Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfulness), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (chastity), and Aparigraha (non-possession).

Death (Nirvana)

  1. In 527 BCE, he attained Mahaparinirvana in Pavapuri (Bihar).
  2. Based on his teachings, Jainism is regarded even today as an exemplar of non-violence and asceticism.

The Most Important Concept of Jain Philosophy:

  1. The entire universe is imbued with life.
  2. Even stones, rocks, and water possess life.
  3. Non-violence towards living beings—specifically refraining from killing humans, animals, plants, and insects—constitutes the central tenet of Jain philosophy.
  4. According to Jain belief, the cycle of birth and rebirth is determined by Karma.
  5. Liberation from the cycle of Karma necessitates renunciation and asceticism.
  6. This becomes possible solely through the renunciation of the world.

What were archaeologist H.H. Cole's views regarding statues or stones in a museum?

  1. He wrote, “Allowing the looting of this country’s ancient artifacts strikes me as a suicidal and indefensible policy.”
  2. His view was that plaster replicas of sculptures should be housed in museums, while the original works should remain at the sites where they were discovered.

How did Sanchi survive, while the Amravati Stupa was destroyed?

  1. The stupas of Sanchi received the patronage of the Begums of Bhopal (Shah Jahan Begum and Sultan Jahan Begum).
  2. By the time Europeans (such as British explorers) arrived there in the 19th century, local rulers had already protected the site from looting and destruction.
  3. British archaeologists (such as John Marshall) also undertook conservation and restoration work.
  4. Sanchi never became a major pilgrimage center; consequently, it remained free from significant religious or political conflicts, thereby escaping ruin.

Why was the Amravati Stupa destroyed?

  1. The Stupa at Amravati (Andhra Pradesh) was renowned and magnificent, yet over time, it fell into neglect.
  2. During the 18th and 19th centuries, local rulers and the British dismantled the Stupa’s sculptures and decorative stones, selling them off to various locations or sending them to museums.
  3. Many of these sculptures eventually found their way to the British Museum and museums in Chennai.
  4. Due to a lack of conservation and rampant looting, the Amravati Stupa was almost completely destroyed.

Sculpture

  1. Through the art of sculpture, various narratives were crafted in stone.
  2. Through the medium of sculpture—specifically on a section of a torana(gateway)—the story of a benevolent prince is depicted: having surrendered all his possessions to a Brahmin, he departed for the forest to live there with his wife and children.
  3. Furthermore, through these sculptures, Lord Buddha came to be regarded as a symbol of worship.
  4. According to Buddhist biographical accounts, Buddha attained enlightenment while meditating beneath a tree.

Folk Traditions

  1. Sanchi also features sculptures of beautiful women carved into the stone.
  2. These figures are depicted clinging to a tree at the edge of the *Torana* (gateway), appearing as if they are swinging. Such a sculpture is known as a *Shalabhanjika*.
  3. According to popular tradition, it was believed that upon being touched by this woman, a tree would burst into bloom and begin to bear fruit.
  4. She was regarded as a symbol of auspiciousness.
  5. Sanchi contains carvings of animal fables drawn from the “Jataka” tales; it appears that these animal motifs were carved here specifically to captivate and engage the people.
  6. Historians have associated one particular female figure with Maya, the mother of the Buddha, while other historians identify her as the popular goddess Gajalakshmi. Devotees viewing these carved figures would often associate them with both Maya and Gajalakshmi.
  7. Carvings of serpents can be found on many of the pillars; Sanchi was considered a significant center for the worship of both trees and serpents.

Fatalist and Materialist

  1. Determinism implies that every event is predetermined (fixed in advance) and cannot be altered by anyone.
  2. In other words, everything that occurs happens as a result of fate, God, or predetermined laws.
  3. Materialism asserts that only matter and physical objects are real, while everything else—such as the soul or God—does not exist.
  4. That which can be seen, touched, or measured is considered to be the only reality.
  5. Concepts such as thoughts, emotions, and the soul are also regarded as mere products of the functions of the mind and body.

Example :

  • Life and death are merely biological phenomena; there is no soul or reincarnation.
  • Morality and thought, too, are the result of chemical and physical changes within the brain.
  • Makkhali Gosala was a fatalist philosopher, while Ajita Kesakambalin was a materialist philosopher.

Vaishnavism and Shaivism

What is Vaishnavism?

  1. This is a prominent tradition within Hinduism, in which Lord Vishnu and His avatars—such as Rama, Krishna, Vamana, and Narasimha—are revered as the Supreme Deity.
  2. Vaishnava devotees regard Vishnu as the Preserver (Protector) of the universe.
  3. Deities such as Vishnu, Lakshmi, Rama-Sita, Radha-Krishna, and Jagannath feature prominently in their worship and rituals.
  4. Scriptures such as the Gita, the Bhagavata Purana, and the Vishnu Sahasranama hold great significance for them.

Key Features:

  • Non-violence, Devotion, Love
  • Worship of idols or images of Vishnu or His avatars
  • The significance of Vishnu’s mount, Garuda, and His symbols—the Conch and the Discus

What is Shaivism?

  1. This is the second major tradition within Hinduism, in which Lord Shiva is revered as the Supreme Deity.
  2. Shaiva devotees worship Shiva as the Destroyer of the cosmos and as the embodiment of meditation and asceticism.
  3. The worship of the Shiva Linga, Nataraja, Parvati, Ganesha, and Kartikeya features prominently in their rituals and devotional practices.
  4. The Shiva Purana, Linga Purana, and Shiva Sahasranama are significant scriptures for them.

Key Features:

  • Yoga, Meditation, and Asceticism
  • Worship of the Shivling or the form of Nataraja
  • The significance of Shiva’s mount, Nandi, and his symbols—the Trident and the Damaru

Hinayana and Mahayana

Hinayan

Meaning: ‘Heena’ = small or inferior; ‘Yana’ = path or vehicle — essentially, the ‘Lesser Path.’ Followers of Hinayana consider themselves to be Theravadins.

Main Characteristics:

  • The Path to Liberation: Through Personal Spiritual Practice (Personal Salvation)
  • Buddha is regarded merely as a great teacher (a distinguished human being)—not as God or a deity.
  • Emphasis is placed on strict discipline and the original teachings.
  • The Ideal: The Arhat—one who has attained liberation (Moksha) for themselves.

Mahayana

Meaning: ‘Maha’ = Great, ‘Yana’ = Path or Vehicle → i.e., the Great Path.

Key Features:

  • Salvation is not merely for oneself, but for all sentient beings (Universal Salvation).
  • Reverence for the Buddha as a divine figure, and the worship of his various forms and Bodhisattvas.
  • Emphasis on flexibility, compassion (Karuna), and devotional practices.
  • The ideal of the Bodhisattva—one who, having reached the threshold of liberation, pauses to assist others.
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Class 12 History Chapter 4 Notes Thinkers Beliefs and Buildings
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