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class 12 political science Chapter 2 notes
contemporary centres of power

Here we are providing notes of the first chapter of Class 12 Political Science “Contemporary Centres of Power”. This chapter covers the main features of the new centre of power.

These notes will be useful for students who are preparing for board exams this year. This material prepared in simple and systematic language will help in revising the chapter quickly and remembering the key points.

Meaning of new centre of power

After the Cold War, some organizations and countries played an influential role in international politics, which made it clear that these organizations and countries could be seen as an alternative to the unipolarity of America. After the breakdown of the bipolar system in world politics, it became clear that the contemporary centers of political and economic power would limit the dominance of America to some extent.

European Union

Formation of the European Union

  1. The Second World War ended in 1945.
  2. After the war, the economic condition of the whole of Europe became very bad.
  3. In 1948, America started giving economic aid to the countries of Europe under the Marshall Plan.
  4. The European Economic Cooperation Organization was established in 1948.
  5. The European Economic Community was formed in 1957.
  6. The European Parliament was formed in 1979. After which this organization started changing from an economic organization to a political organization.
  7. The European Union was formed in 1992 by the Maastricht Treaty.
  8. In 1992, the European Union had become a fully political organization.

Reasons and objectives of the establishment of the European Union

  1. The European Union was established to formulate a common policy of the member countries.
  2. To promote free trade among all member countries and to have a common currency (Euro) in use in all countries so that the demand for the US dollar can be reduced.
  3. Disputes between the member countries of the organization should be resolved through dialogue and peace should be established in the region.
  4. Rapid development in political, cultural and economic fields has to be achieved by increasing cooperation among all members.
  5. To accelerate business activities by increasing free movement among the member countries of the organization.
  6. By organizing the European countries at one place and forming an organization, the growing influence of America was to be challenged.

Features of the European Union

  1. The countries of the European Union created their own flag, the Organ of Europe, which shows it as a political organization.
  2. It has its own flag, anthem, founding day and its own currency.
  3. When the GDP of all the countries of the European Union is organized at one place, it becomes the world’s largest economy, which can give a direct competition to America.
  4. The share of the European Union’s currency Euro has reduced the demand for the US dollar in world trade by 3 times.
  5. The military power of the European Union is the world’s largest military power.
  6. Two countries of the European Union, Britain and France, are nuclear-armed countries as well as permanent members of the Security Council.
  7. A common foreign policy works among the members of the Union, which puts the economy of the Union in a very strong position.
  8. Over time, the European Union has increased its political participation more than its economic role on the global stage.
    The European Union has given a direct competition to American unipolarity, due to which the Union has emerged as a new alternative power.

Economic impact of the European Union

  1. In 2016, it was the world’s largest economy and its GDP was more than $17000 billion, which is almost the same as that of the US.
  2. Its currency, the Euro, has become a threat to the dominance of the US dollar.
  3. Its share in world trade is three times that of the US.
  4. Its economic power influences the countries of Europe, Asia and Africa.
  5. It acts as an important group within the World Trade Organization.

Political influence of the European Union

  1. One of its member countries, France, is a permanent member of the Security Council.
  2. Many other countries of the European Union are temporary members of the Security Council.

European Union military influence

  1. The European Union has the second largest army in the world.
  2. Its total defense budget is the second largest after the US.
  3. France, a member country of the European Union, has nuclear weapons.
  4. The European Union also ranks second in the world in terms of internal science and communication technology.

Weaknesses or limitations of the European Union

1.) Its member countries have their own foreign policy and defense policy which are sometimes against each other. Like in the case of attack on Iraq.

2.) There is resentment in some parts of Europe regarding the implementation of Euro currency.

3.) Denmark and Sweden opposed the Maastricht Treaty and the common European currency Euro.

4.) Many member countries of the European Union were in the American alliance.

5.) Former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher kept Britain away from the European market.

6.) Britain decided to separate from the European Union through a referendum in June 2016. Which is called Brexit. Britain is no longer a member of the European Union.

ASEAN (Association of South Earth)

  1. ASEAN is an organization of South East Asian countries.
  2. ASEAN was established in 1967 by 5 countries signing the Banco Declaration – Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines.
  3. These five countries are considered to be the founding countries of ASEAN.
  4. 5 countries later became members of this organization – Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, Brunei.
  5. At present ASEAN has 10 members.

Reasons for the formation of ASEAN

  1. To accelerate the economic development of member countries so that the people there can get all the basic facilities.
  2. To resolve disputes between the member countries of the organization through mutual dialogue.
  3. To accelerate trade activities by expanding the free trade area between ASEAN countries.
  4. To maintain the sovereignty and sovereignty of all nations so that all countries can make their own ideas and their foreign policy based on their own decisions.
  5. To establish peace in the South East Asian region and encourage trade activities.

Importance of ASEAN

  1. Promoting mutual reconciliation at the regional level
  2. Using the military power of member countries
  3. Maintaining foreign policy coordination among all the members of the organization.
  4. Accelerating trade activities by expanding the free trade area as much as possible.
  5. Expanding ASEAN’s policies by forming an economic community, social community and security community so that all member countries can be taken to the highest level of development.
  6. Providing ASEAN as a new alternative to cheap travel by showcasing it at the international level through Vision 2020.

ASEAN Way

Promoting informal, non-confrontational and cooperative interaction with all members is known as the ASEAN way.

China

  1. China gained independence in 1949, at that time the Communist Party was dominant in China.
  2. The economy in China was kept under the control of the state.
  3. The People’s Republic of China was established in 1949 after the communist revolution led by Mao. Initially the economy here was based on the Soviet system.

Development of China under Mao's leadership

The development model adopted by China focused on taking capital out of agriculture and setting up big industries under government control.

1) China aimed to build a large industrial economy to establish a socialist model. To achieve this objective, it invested all its resources in industry.

2) China surpassed developed countries in terms of providing employment, health facilities and social welfare schemes to its citizens, but the growing population was creating obstacles in development.

3) Agriculture was not able to meet the needs of the industries there because it was based on traditional methods.

the rise of the Chinese economy

Initiatives for reform in China

  1. China ended its political and economic isolation by establishing relations with America in 1972.
  2. In 1973, Prime Minister Chou En Lai put forward four proposals for modernization in the fields of agriculture, industry, service and science and technology.
  3. In 1978, China adopted the open door policy and gave an opportunity to investors to work in the country, giving importance to globalization.
  4. In 1982, China promoted privatization in the agricultural sector.
  5. In 1998, privatization was promoted in the industrial sector. Due to which importance started being given to the market.
  6. To promote foreign investors in its country, China formed a Special Economic Zone (SEZ) for the first time from where all business activities started being carried out.
  7. China has the highest foreign direct investment (EDI) in the whole world and China also has the highest foreign exchange reserves (US dollar) in the world.
  8. China ranks third in the world in terms of area and its currency is named Yuan.
  9. China joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001, which was a direct indication that China has opened its economy to other countries.
  10. At present, China is emerging as a superpower giving direct competition to America on the basis of economy.

The downside of Chinese reforms

(1) The benefits of economic development have not reached all members of society.

(2) Unemployment has increased in China and 10 crore people are looking for jobs.

(3) The employment and working conditions of women are not satisfactory there.

(4) The income gap between people living in villages and cities and those living on the coast and the mainland has increased.

(5) Development activities have caused considerable damage to the environment.

(6) Corruption has increased in administrative and social life in China.

China: As the new rising world power:

(1) Huge size in terms of area

(2) Became a member of the World Trade Organization in 2001

(3) It is one of the largest economies in the world

(4) Japan, America, ASEAN and Russia – all have forgotten all other disputes with China in the name of trade.

(5) China’s economic rise has helped a lot in keeping the economy of ASEAN countries afloat after the financial crisis of 1997.

(6) China is a nuclear power.

(7) China is also a permanent member of the Security Council.

(8) China’s policies of investment and aid in Latin America and Africa show that China is emerging as a new power in the world.

India's relations with China

Areas of dispute:

1. Relations between the two countries deteriorated drastically due to China’s annexation of Tibet in 1950 and China’s settlements on the India-China border.

2. The India-China war took place in 1962 due to competing claims on some areas of Arunachal Pradesh and the Aksai Chin region of Ladakh.

3. India suffered a military defeat in the 1962 war and this had a long-term impact on India-China relations.

4. Diplomatic relations between the two countries remained suspended until 1976.

5. The recent border dispute between the two countries has also led to a deterioration in relations.

6. China is a supporter of Pakistan’s nuclear weapons program.

7. China’s military relations with Bangladesh and Myanmar are considered against India’s interests in South Asia.

8 China supports Pakistan by exercising its veto power against India’s anti-terrorism proposal in the United Nations.

9. China-Pakistan Economic Corridor leads to deterioration in the relations between China and India.

Areas of cooperation:

1. Due to change in political leadership of China in the late 1970s, there was a change in China’s policy. China gave importance to practical issues instead of ideological issues, so China agreed to improve relations with India by leaving controversial issues.

2. The relations between the two countries have not only political but also economic aspects.

3. Both the countries want to play an important role in the politics and economy of Asia.

4. In December 1988, Rajiv Gandhi visited China and tried to improve relations.

5. Both the countries made agreements for cultural exchange, mutual cooperation in the field of science and technology and opening of border posts for trade.

6. Since 1999, India-China trade has been growing at the rate of about 30 percent annually.

7. In 1992, bilateral trade between India and China was 33 crore 80 lakh dollars.

8. In 2017, it increased to 84 billion dollars.

9. Both countries are also ready to cooperate in securing energy deals abroad.

10. The relations are becoming positive due to the expansion of transport and communication routes, common economic interests.

11. Leaders and officials of China and India now frequently visit Delhi and Beijing.

Japan

  1. Japan is an island country located to the east of the Asian continent.
  2. The only country to have suffered the horror of the atomic bomb is Japan.
  3. As per Article 9 of the Constitution of Japan, the people of Japan forever renounce war and the threat or use of force in resolving international disputes.

Japan as a contemporary center of power

  1. Japan has less natural resources and imports most of the raw materials. Despite this, Japan progressed rapidly after the Second World War.
  2. Japan became a member of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in 1964.
  3. In 2017, Japan’s economy is the third largest economy in the world.
  4. Japan is the only Asian country that is included in the group (G-7).
  5. Japan ranks 11th in the world in terms of population.
  6. Japan is the only country to have suffered the horror of the atomic bomb.
  7. Japan contributes 10% to the budget of the United Nations.
  8. Japan is the second largest country in terms of contributing to the budget of the United Nations.
  9. Japan ranks seventh in the world in terms of military expenditure.
  10. Japan has a security alliance with the US since 1951.

South Korea

The Korean Peninsula was divided into South Korea (Republic of Korea) and North Korea (Democratic Republic of Korea) at the end of World War II.

The Korean War of 1950-53 and the dynamics of the Cold War period intensified the rivalry between the two sides.

Finally, on 17 September 1991, both Koreas became members of the United Nations. Meanwhile, South Korea emerged as the centre of power in Asia.

South Korea as a contemporary center of power :-

1. South Korea’s rapid rise as an economic power between the 1960s and 1980s is known as the “Miracle on the Han River”.

2. In 1996, South Korea became a member of the OECD.

3. In 2017, South Korea’s economy is the 11th largest economy in the world.

4. In terms of military expenditure, South Korea ranks tenth in the world.

5. According to the Human Development Report 2016, South Korea’s HDI rank is 18th in the world.

6. The major factors responsible for South Korea’s high human development include successful land reform, rural development, comprehensive human resource development, rapid equitable economic growth.

7. South Korea is famous for high technology. Samsung, LG, Hyundai are famous South Korean brands in India.

8. Several agreements between India and South Korea reflect their growing commercial and cultural ties.

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