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Class 12 History Chapter 2 Notes
Kings Farmers and Towns

Here we provide notes for the first chapter of Class 12 History, “Kings, Farmers, and Towns.” This chapter explores the key features of the era of kings, farmers, and towns.

These notes will be useful for students preparing for this year’s board exams. Prepared in simple and organized language, this material will help them quickly revise the chapter and remember key points.

Class 12 History Chapter 2 Notes Kings Farmers and Towns

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class 12 history chapter 2 notes

Meaning of Janapada

Janapada means a land where a people (a clan, tribe, or people) establishes or settles. This word is used in both Prakrit and Sanskrit.

James Prinsep

  1. James Prinsep was an officer under the East India Company.
  2. In the 1830s, he successfully deciphered the Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts, making it easier to obtain information about many events related to Indian history.
  3. James Prinsep discovered many inscriptions in which both Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts were used simultaneously.
  4. These scripts were used in the earliest inscriptions and coins. Prinsep obtained this information. The inscriptions and coins bore the name of Piyadasa (Ashoka), meaning the king with a beautiful face.

Brahmi script

  1. The Brahmi script is the origin of almost all scripts used in modern Indian languages.
  2. The Brahmi script was used in the Ashokan inscriptions.
  3. James Prinsep deciphered the Ashokan Brahmi script in 1838.

Mauryan Empire

  1. The Mauryan Empire emerged alongside the development of Magadha.
  2. The Mauryan Empire’s founder, Chandragupta Maurya (c. 321 BCE), ruled over Afghanistan and Baluchistan in the northwest.
  3. His grandson, Ashoka, who can be considered the most famous ruler of early India, conquered Kalinga (modern-day Odisha).

Administrative System of the Mauryan Empire

Central Administration

  1. The central administration consisted of the king, the council of ministers, and high government officials.
  2. The king was supreme.
  3. All civil and military administration was run according to his wishes.
  4. He lived lavishly in a magnificent palace, but he never forgot the welfare of his subjects.
  5. The king was advised by several officials, including the Adhyaksha, Amatya, Rajuk, and Pradeshik.
  6. Even after their appointment, officials called Dharma Mahamattas monitored their actions. These officials were all of high character and honesty.

Provincial administration

To manage the affairs of such a large state efficiently, the country was divided into the following four provinces.

i. Central Province – Its capital was Pataliputra. The king himself administered the affairs of this province.

ii. North-Western Province – Its capital was Taxila.

iii. Western Province – Its capital was Ujjaini.

iv. Southern Province – Its capital was Swarngiri.

v. Eastern Province – This province came into existence after Ashoka’s Kalinga War. Its capital was Tosali.

Military rule of the Mauryan Empire

  1. Chandragupta Maurya had a vast army.
  2. It consisted of approximately 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 9,000 elephants, and 8,000 chariots.
  3. Each elephant typically had four men, and a chariot three men.
  4. Thus, his army numbered approximately 700,000 soldiers. This entire army was paid in cash.
  5. The Mauryan Empire had five major political centers: the capital, Pataliputra, and four provincial centers: Taxila, Ujjaini, Tosali, and Suvarnagiri.
  6. Megasthenes mentions a committee and six subcommittees for the management of military operations.

The first subcommittee was responsible for the naval operations.

The second subcommittee managed transportation and food.

The third subcommittee managed the infantry.

The fourth subcommittee managed the cavalry.

The Fifth Subcommittee was responsible for managing the charioteers.

The Sixth Subcommittee was responsible for managing the elephants.

The second committee’s responsibilities were varied:

  1. Arranging for carts to transport equipment.
  2. Arranging for food for the soldiers and fodder for the animals.
  3. Recruiting servants and craftsmen to care for the soldiers.

Sources of information on the Mauryan Empire

(i) Megasthenes’ Indica: Megasthenes was a Greek ambassador who served at the court of Chandragupta Maurya for a period. He wrote extensively about Chandragupta Maurya in his book, Indica. This book provides important information about the Mauryan emperor, his capital, governance, military organization, and the social conditions of the country.

(ii) Kautilya’s Arthashastra: Kautilya was Chandragupta Maurya’s Prime Minister. In his famous treatise, Arthashastra, he provides important information about Chandragupta, the ideals of kingship, his ministers, provincial and civil administration, spies, the economic condition of the people, financial management, the penal system, and governance.

(iii) Vishakhadatta’s Mudrarakshasa: In his famous play, Mudrarakshasa, Vishakhadatta writes extensively about Chandragupta Maurya, his relationship with Kautilya, and the destruction of the Nad dynasty. This play also provides insight into the political, social, economic, and religious conditions of the time.

(iv) Jain and Buddhist texts: Jain and Buddhist texts such as the Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, and Kalpasutra provide useful information about the Mauryan period.

(v) Inscriptions and artifacts: Inscriptions engraved on rocks, caves, and pillars provide information about the Mauryan period, especially the reign of Ashoka.

(vi) Coins: The coins of the Mauryan kings also provide information about history. The coins of the Mauryan period bear images of many kings.

Features of Mauryan Administration

i. Administrative control was strongest in the capital and its surrounding areas and provincial centers.

ii. Communications along both land and river routes were well developed for the empire’s survival.

iii. Arrangements were made for food and security for travelers along these routes.

iv. Efficient military administration.

v. Ashoka propagated the Dhamma to keep the empire under control.

vi. The entire empire was divided into five major political centers for better control.

Ashoka

  1. After Chandragupta, Ashoka emerged as the most influential king in the Maurya Empire.
  2. His father’s name was Bindusara and his mother’s name was Subhadragi.
  3. During Ashoka’s reign, the Magadha Empire expanded.
  4. He was one of the most powerful rulers.
  5. He took Magadha’s rule to new heights.
  6. The Kalinga War proved to be Ashoka’s last war, as he ceased to fight after this.

Ashoka's Dhamma

  1. The collection of ethical principles and social rules propounded by Ashoka is called Dhamma.
  2. Dhamma contained the essence of the good things of all religions.
  3. Ashoka’s Dhamma included respect for elders, generosity towards monks and Brahmins, kind treatment of servants and slaves, and respect for other sects.

Kalinga War 261 BC

  1. Kalinga was located in the present-day state of Odisha.
  2. By conquering this region, Ashoka wanted to expand his kingdom throughout India.
  3. This would give him access to South India and Southeast India.
  4. For this reason, Ashoka attacked this region.
  5. Ashoka was victorious in this war, but seeing so many people die, Ashoka’s heart changed.
  6. He felt that so many people had died solely because of him.
  7. After that war, Ashoka gave up fighting and considered it the last victory of his life.
  8. After this war, Ashoka devoted himself to social welfare work and composed the Dhamma.

Magadha was a powerful empire

Magadha became the most powerful Mahajanapada between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE.

The following are the reasons for this:

(1) Agricultural yields were particularly good in the Magadha region.

(2) Iron mines were readily available, making it easier to manufacture tools and weapons.

(3) Elephants were available in the forested areas, which were an important part of the army.

(4) Transportation via the Ganges and its tributaries was cheap and easy.

(5) The policies of various rulers have also been cited as reasons for Magadha’s importance. Famous kings like Bindusara, Ajatashatru, and Mahapadmananda were extremely ambitious rulers.

Rajgah

  1. Initially, Rajgah (the Prakrit name for Rajgir in modern Bihar) was the capital of Magadha.
  2. The word means ‘home of kings’.
  3. Rajgah, nestled among the hills, was a fortified city.
  4. Later in the 4th century BCE, the capital was made Pataliputra, now Patna, which had a strategic location on the Gangetic route.

Methods for increasing yields from the 6th century to the early 1st century

  1. One method of increasing yields was the introduction of the plow, which spread to the fertile region of the Gangetic and Kaveri valleys as early as the sixth century BCE.
  2. In areas with heavy rainfall, fertile land was plowed using plows with iron plows.
  3. The introduction of rice in the Gangetic valley led to a significant increase in yields.
  4. Farmers living in the northeastern, central, and mountainous regions of the subcontinent used hoes for cultivation, which were more practical than simple tillers.
  5. Another method of increasing yields was irrigation through ponds and, in some cases, canals.
  6. Individuals and farming communities collectively constructed irrigation systems.

Archives

  1. Inscriptions are those that are engraved on a hard surface such as stone, metal, or pottery.
  2. Inscriptions record the achievements, activities, or thoughts of the people who commissioned them.
  3. They contain details of the activities of kings and donations made by men and women to religious institutions.
  4. In other words, inscriptions are a form of permanent evidence.
  5. Many inscriptions also have the date of their creation engraved on them. Those that do not bear a date can usually be dated fairly precisely based on the palaeography or writing style.

Limitations of archival evidence

  1. The letters are lightly engraved.
  2. Some letters are lost due to the inscriptions being broken.
  3. The original meaning cannot be discerned.
  4. The language cannot be understood.
  5. The inscriptions do not mention the daily routines and joys and sorrows of everyday life.

Importance of Sangam literature

(i) This literature is extremely useful for the cultural, literary, religious, political, and historical study of ancient Tamil society.

(ii) It has greatly influenced later literary traditions. The Sangam literature is of exceptional importance for the ancient history of South India. This literature mentions three dynasties of the time: the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas.

(iii) Sangam literature deals with emotional and material themes such as love, war, governance, trade, and grief.

(iv) Sangam literature is one of the main sources used to document the early history of ancient Tamil country. Ancient Sangam poems mention several kings and princes, some of whose existence has been confirmed through archaeological evidence.

Characteristics of coins from the 6th century BC to the 6th century AD

1. Coins became popular as a means of exchange.

2. Punched silver and copper coins were minted and used from the sixth century BCE.

3. Coins tell us about the trade network.

4. Symbols on punch-marked coins identify dynasties.

5. Coins were also issued by merchants and wealthy people.

6. The first coins with the names and images of kings were issued by Indo-Greek rulers.

7. The first gold coins were issued by the Kushans. They resembled Roman coins.

8. Roman coins have been found in places in South India with which they had trade relations.

9. Yaudheya rulers issued copper coins, indicating their interest in trade.

10. The Gupta rulers issued gold coins with high purity, facilitating long-distance trade.

Description of the high status of Kushan rulers

i. Using inscriptions, coins, and sculptures.

ii. Colossal statues of Kushan rulers were erected – statues have been found at Mathura in Uttar Pradesh and at a shrine in Afghanistan.

iii. Through these statues, the Kushans presented themselves as sons of gods.

iv. They also added the title of “son of gods” to their names.

v. Coins and sculptures reveal the official religion of the Kushan rulers.

Bricks, beads and bones
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This Chapter in Hindi Medium

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